Features of nuclear radiation under isomeric excitation

A.V. Kosarev, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Orenburg

Annotation
The article discusses the features of the radiation of nuclei in the state of isomeric excitation,
opened by Kurchatov I.V. with employees in 1935. The predominant radiation channels of isomerically excited nuclei are beta-rapad and an internal conversion channel,
which is additionally accompanied by soft X-ray radiation. Gamma radiation is practically not observed. Isomeric excitation is caused by the capture of slow neutrons
(most often cold and ultra-cold). Despite the insufficient attention of physicists to the isomeric states of the nucleus, this is a widespread phenomenon of nature. For example,
natural beta decay is a consequence and a sign of isomeric excitation of nuclei.

Introduction
Briefly recall the discovery of various types of radiation and their features known at the time of the work of Fleischmann and Pons. The information is taken from [2]. Two fundamentally different types of radiation were identified – material particles and electromagnetic corpuscles. In 1859, cathode rays were discovered by Plucker. In 1895 Perrin experimentally proved that cathode rays are a stream of negatively charged particles that can be deflected by a magnetic field. Then the researchers measured
the mass of the electron, the charge. Louis de Broglie suggested that the electron has wave properties. At the end of 1895, X-ray, studying cathode rays, discovered an unknown radiation, later called X-ray radiation.
The study and development of nuclear physics began with the discovery of radioactivity (Becquerel, 1896). At the turn of the century, two types of decays were discovered – α and β decays, often accompanied by gamma radiation. Direct experimental proof of the photon has been given Milleken in 1915 in his studies of the photoelectric effect. Electromagnetic radiation (light) is a stream of individual photons, which well explains the laws of the photoelectric effect. The discovery of the proton was made by Rutherford in 1919, although the hydrogen ion
had long been known by this time. In 1932, Chadwick discovered the neutron. The state of isomeric excitation it was opened by I.V. Kurchatov and his staff in 1935. In 1937 , Alvarez was opened K-capture. In 1938, conversion radiation of nuclear isomers (Rusins) was discovered.,
Pontecorvo), the emission of electrons of internal conversion by substances was detected, exciting neutrons (Hoffman, Bacher). In 1955, the antiproton was discovered. Then followed the discoveries of other particles and radiation.

Thus, by the time of the discovery of LENR, almost all types of radiation were known. Their characteristics were studied, devices for their registration were developed. [2].
By the 70s of the last century, the theory of the atom and the atomic nucleus in generally accepted understanding today. This theory is based on numerous experiments and decades of practice. Three main types of nuclear transformations have been identified,
nuclear reactions. This is a synthesis, a fusion of light nuclei. Division of heavy transuranic elements. And nuclear decay reactions characteristic of almost all elements of the periodic table.
All types of radiation characteristic of these nuclear reactions have been identified. The main efforts of the researchers were focused on nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. These reactions
they were accompanied by the release of hitherto unseen energies, which promised energy abundance. Decay reactions, which are energetically weaker, have also been widely developed
mainly in diagnostic technologies. All nuclear reactions were accompanied by harmful, including intense radiation. The technologies of the nuclear industry were on the verge of possibilities,
since they were often accompanied by extremely high temperatures and pressures. They imposed strict requirements on materials science. Required costly structures for radiation protection. All this formed a special opinion and attitude to nuclear physics and nuclear technologies. Therefore, the message of Fleishman and Pons in 1989 about their discovery of cold nuclear fusion, which promised an abundance of energy at low technological parameters, and even without harmful radiation, was perceived by professional nuclear scientists
with bewilderment, replaced by hostility. But after the publication, the ideas of Fleishman and Pons lived an independent life, attracting researchers. And the level of technology development,
experimental and measuring technology have reached such a development that new, previously unknown phenomena of nuclear physics literally peeked through from all sides. In the same year, 1989
, there were reports of Piantelli’s experiments. Then the experiments of Foccardi and A. Rossi, Kornilova A.A., Vachaeva A.V., Koldomasova A.I., Fominsky L. P., Bazhutova Yu.N., Parkhomova
A.G., a large group of Japanese researchers, Klimov A.I., Taleyarkhan R., Urpin K., and many others. But there were earlier studies, for example, by Kervran. Shrug off
the discovery of new phenomena of nuclear physics has become impossible. But here the other extreme appeared. The now well-established nuclear physics was not perceived by researchers of cold nuclear fusion
as a basis for explaining new nuclear phenomena. To explain the huge experimental material on low-energy nuclear reactions (LENR) , an equally huge number of exotic (according to the authors themselves) ideas
and hypotheses were put forward that contradicted established nuclear physics and each other. The situation is still it became more complicated after the message of L.I. Urutskoev about the discovery of a new type of radiation, which he called
“strange”. Many researchers began to perceive the “strange” radiation as the key to understanding the physics of LENR. This approach completely confused the situation.
The low level of ionizing radiation in comparison with typical and well-studied reactions of synthesis, decay and fission are among the most mysterious manifestations of LENR.
A special difference from the known reactions is the NEP in reactors with flooded surfaces. Here, researchers are surprised not only by the low level of ionizing
radiation, but especially the almost complete absence of gamma radiation. My ideas about LENR as long-known nuclear fusion and decay reactions, unexpectedly manifested by specific physical conditions, do not find understanding among
colleagues at the Klimov-Zatelepin webinar. At the same time, they are either hushed up or simply brushed off. And only A.G. Parkhomov found time to study my works, express constructive criticism and raise acute questions that require clarification. I am very grateful to A.G. Parkhomov both for his fair criticism and for the difficult questions that stimulated efforts to further develop my ideas about LENR. The main one among these questions was the question of the peculiarities of radiation in nickel-hydrogen reactors associated
with the absence of gamma radiation during neutron capture by the nucleus.

The purpose of this work is to answer the question of Parkhomov Alexander Georgievich. To try to show that all the radiation observed in the LENR experiments correspond to the well-known and
well-studied radiation of synthesis and decay reactions. Their low level is caused by a small amount of the substance involved in nuclear reactions, which is associated with special physical
conditions of the course of nuclear reactions. And the absence of gamma radiation in nickel-hydrogen reactors is associated with the processes of internal conversion during isomeric excitation of nuclei, which have long
been studied and well known.

1. The state of isomeric excitation of nuclei.
Nuclei (nuclides), depending on the energy, are in a stable or excited state. In a stable state, the nucleus has minimal energy, stays in this state for a long time and does not undergo radioactive decay. The nucleus in the excited state
has energies exceeding the energy of the ground state. In this state, the nucleus is not stable and after a certain time undergoes radioactive decay with the emission of one or more particles. The excited state of the nucleus can be achieved in various ways. Us the excited states associated with neutron capture will be of interest.
“A nuclide is a type of atom characterized by the number of protons and neutrons, and in some cases by the energy state of the nucleus. Nuclides can be stable or unstable,
i.e. radioactive.”[2]. A nuclide is each individual type of atoms of a chemical element with a nucleus consisting of a strictly defined number of protons (Z) and neutrons (N),
and the nucleus is in a certain energy state (ground state or one of the isomeric states). [Wikipedia]. Various channels of radioactive decay are known, which transfer the nucleus after a certain
time from an excited state to a stable one. Most often, radioactive decay occurs with gamma-ray radiation after a few picoseconds (10-12 seconds). But “Many nuclei have excited states with a relatively long lifetime – isomeric states. .. The half-lives of isomeric states vary very widely – from 10-6 seconds to many years.” [16]. “An isomer is a nuclide in an excited nuclear state, with a measurable life expectancy (>10-9 c)”. [2]. Isomeric excitation of nuclides was discovered Kurchatov I.V. with employees in 1935. The long lifetime of isomeric states is explained by the difficulty of transitions from the isomeric state to the ground state, either due to the large difference in spins, or due to a significant difference in the shape of the ground and isomeric states of the nucleus. If, at the same time, the difference in the energy of the two states is small, then the probability of emitting a gamma quantum is small. In this situation, the transition from an excited state to a stable one occurs either to the beta decay channel or to the internal conversion channel. Both channels are well studied by now.

The beta decay channel occurs according to the formula: n → p + e- + v~ + 0.78 Mev. At the same time, the spectrum of electrons emitted during beta decay is continuous. As a result of beta decay, a new element appears with a larger ordinal
number per unit. The decay through the internal conversion channel occurs in two stages. At the first stage, the gamma quantum emitted by the isomeric nucleus is captured by one of the shell electrons atom. At the second stage, this electron breaks away from the atom and a vacancy forms in its place (hole). Since the gamma quantum can be captured by electrons from various shells, the radiation spectrum of conversion electrons is linear.

Electrons from higher levels jump to the place of the hole formed in the electron shell. This process is accompanied by soft X-rays. When disintegrating through the internal conversion channel , no new element is formed. If isomeric excitation, which led to the processes of internal If the conversion occurred during the capture of a slow neutron, then a new isotope of this element arises as a result. [2, 14, 15, 16].

Consider Figure 1, which shows a proton-neutron diagram. In the figure – 1: 1 -track of β(-) – stable nuclei (265 nuclei); 2 – region of β(-) – active nuclei (1700 nuclei); 3- region of β(+) – active nuclei.
“Of the 2,500 nuclides currently known, only 271 are stable.

The remaining nuclides are unstable; they are transformed by one or more successive decays, accompanied by the emission of particles or gamma quanta, into
stable nuclides. Radioactive decay can occur if this transformation it is energetically advantageous, i.e. if the difference between the mass of the initial nucleus and the total mass of the decay products is positive.” [2]. As can be seen from the last paragraph, most nuclides are radioactive nuclides, a significant number of which are in an isomeric, metastable state. Islands of isomerism exist in certain regions of the number of nucleons.
[15]. Isomeric states of nuclei are a widespread phenomenon and their decay occurs mainly through channels with suppressed gamma radiation. This is what is observed in reactors with flooded surfaces.
Now let’s consider the excited states of nuclei caused by the capture of neutrons of various energies from cold to fast. In this case, the processes of excitation and subsequent decay will be considered within the framework of the law of conservation of energy, the binding energy of the nucleus and the mass defect.

A.G. Parkhomov states: “Hard gamma radiation occurs almost always when a neutron is captured by a nucleus. The daughter nucleus is excited not only and not so much because the neutron transfers its kinetic energy, but mainly because the neutron has the mass of 939 Mev, greatly changes the binding energy of the nucleus. When capturing a thermal or cold neutron, the nucleus is excited no worse than when capturing a fast neutron. The only difference is that the cross-section of interaction with matter in thermal neutrons is much largerthan in fast ones.” [6, comment by A.G. Parkhomov]. At the same time, A.G. Parkhomov refers to [4].
Such an explanation about the exceptional gamma radiation by the nucleus during neutron capture does not look convincing to me. The answer of the core , like any material structure , depends on the strength and impact energy. Every material structure experiences the greater changes, the stronger the impact on it. For the nucleus, the effect of fast neutrons causes strong excitation of the order of 5-6 Mev and rapid (within picoseconds, 10-12 seconds) radiation of gamma quanta.
Exposure to slow neutrons (cold and ultra-cold) causes isomeric excitation lasting from milliseconds (10-3 seconds) to many years. In this case, the radiation is weaker: β-decay with an energy of 0.78 Mev or radiation of internal conversion, accompanied by including soft X-rays. If an artillery core with a certain mass hits a fortress wall at different speeds (energy), then the effect of excitation of the wall will obviously be different. Of course, there will immediately be an objection that I have given an example of their classical dynamics, and quantum dynamics works with neutron capture.

But even in quantum physics, nothing comes from nowhere. And in [3] Professor I.N. Beckman writes: “Nucleons in the nucleus are not static, but the average speed of movement of nucleons in the nucleus does not exceed a tenth of the speed of light, this means that non-relativistic mechanics can be used to describe motion.” And more from the works of Prof. Beckman I.N. [2]: “The mass of the nucleus and its stability are determined by how much the magnitude of the energy of attraction between the nucleons exceeds the total kinetic energy of the movement of nucleons in the nucleus.” The energy in the microcosm is transmitted in portions, in h-quanta.

This forms the structure of energy levels in quantum systems. Electrons at the energy levels (orbits) of the atom, nucleons at the energy levels (orbits) of the nucleus they are in a state of dynamic equilibrium between the forces of nuclear (strong) attraction, Coulomb repulsion and centrifugal forces. This balance forms energy levels and their multitude. Specific energy levels are formed by the transferred total portions of energy. Yes, neutron capture will affect both the spin of the nuclide and its shape (quadriupole moment). But the energy level during neutron capture is determined by the introduced energy.
Beta decay is not always accompanied by gamma radiation. There are nuclear batteries on beta decay, which do not create dangerous levels of radiation.
There is no objection that when capturing slow (cold) neutrons , the nucleus is also excited. But this is not a strong, but isomeric excitation, which is accompanied by beta decay or the process of internal conversion. If β-decay occurs at the same time, then a new element arises. If an internal conversion process occurs during the capture of a cold neutron, then a new isotope of this element arises.

A.G. Parkhomov’s reference to [4] does not look convincing. The reference book discusses neutron energies range from 1 keV to 14 MeV and isomeric excitations of nuclei are not even mentioned. The same applies to the reference to [5].
Experiments with processes on flooded surfaces speak precisely about the isomeric states of nuclei and their corresponding radiations. In nickel-hydrogen reactors (and in general in reactors with flooded surfaces), beta decay and internal conversion processes occur simultaneously. This is evidenced by the appearance of new isotopes and elements and soft X-rays. Heat in nickel hydrogen reactors is released during beta decay with the energy of beta decaying electrons and in the processes of internal conversion with the energy of conversion electrons. The radiation of isomers through the internal conversion channel is characterized by an internal conversion coefficient equal to the ratio of the number of conversion electrons emitted (e-) to the number of gamma quanta emitted. It varies from zero (when emitting only gamma quanta) to infinity (when emitting only electrons).

The greater the coefficient, the smaller the energy difference and the greater the difference in the spin quantum numbers of the two excited states of the nucleus, i.e., the greater the Z and the lifetime. With by increasing the transition energy, the value of the internal conversion coefficient decreases. [2, 14].
Now about the binding energy and the mass defect. In the report “LENR without exotics” at Klimov’s webinar- Zatelepin from 1.06.2022, the objection was raised by the provision that when capturing slow neutrons, the excitation of the nucleus is not accompanied by gamma quanta radiation. As counter arguments, I was reminded of the binding energy in the nucleus and the mass defect. But there is no contradiction here just because the isomeric states of excitation and their accompanying lagging beta decay radiation and electron conversion radiation are real and widespread. Consequently, in these processes, both the binding energy and the mass defect are in order. Nevertheless, let us focus on the concepts of the binding energy of nucleons in the nucleus and the mass defect during the radiation of the nucleus, including in the state of isomeric excitation.

Figure – 2 shows a graph of the specific coupling for various nuclei in the ground state.
The mass defect series corresponding to this graph is also compiled for the ground states of nuclides, of which there are only 271. The total number of nuclides is 2500, of which only β(-)- 1700 active cores.
Hence, there are many intermediate isomeric states between the ground states of nuclides and many small mass defects corresponding to transitions between these isomeric states. From small intermediate (isomeric) mass defects follow
and weak radiations in the form of beta decay and internal conversion. When cold neutrons are captured, energy conditions are formed for a multitude of small mass defects of isomeric states in the intervals of mass defects of the ground state of nuclides. Yes, the internal energy resources of nuclei in nuclear processes are manifested by a large excess of energy release and, accordingly, strong excitation. This is the basis of the statement Parkhomova A.G. that nuclear processes are always accompanied by a dangerous level of gamma
radiation. But this is only in the field of light nuclei synthesis and in the field of heavy fission. When fast neutrons are captured, strong excitations also occur. But these excitations are caused not by the internal energy resources of the nuclei, but by the energy introduced from the outside. But when cold neutrons are captured, only isomeric states arise, intermediate states with small excitations and small mass defects.

There is also radioactive α -decay. In natural conditions, it occurs mainly in radioactive series (in 4 radioactive families). Α – decay processes too they flow due to the internal energy resources of the core. But these processes
are not related to the processes in nickel-hydrogen reactors. In the radioactive series, α – decay occurs with a decrease in the mass and ordinal number of elements. In nickel-hydrogen reactors, on the contrary, the processes proceed with an increase in the mass and sequence number of nuclei. In natural conditions, there are nuclei up to number 92 (uranium). Kernels with large numbers are obtained artificially. The existence in nature of nuclei with an ordinal number > 92 is hindered by the
processes of α – decay in radioactive series.
LENR is no different from the known nuclear fusion reactions and neutron capture. In each individual act of reaction, all the same known amount of energy is released, the same radiation occurs as in known nuclear processes. The peculiarity is that LENR are manifested
in special physical conditions under which the course of known nuclear reactions is possible at low parameters (temperature in the first place) of the medium. At the same time, the relatively low power of nuclear processes is associated with a small number of interacting nuclei per unit
time. This is also related to the relative weakness of LENR radiation in comparison with known nuclear processes and installations. And especially low radiation in the physical conditions of the flooded surfaces is additionally associated with isomeric states arising from the capture of a cold neutron by the nucleus. In this case, delayed radiation occurs in time.
Together, this gives radiation close to the background. But the general (integral in time) radiation is the same as that of known processes. The delay in time with the start of the reaction in flooded reactors is not so much related to the necessary time for the surface to cool down to the required surfacedensity, and mainly with the time of existence of the excited isomeric state (from milliseconds to many years). From here , about 70 days before Fleischmann ‘s reaction and Pons.

2. Nucleosynthesis of heavy elements.
Despite the almost century-long period after the discovery of the state of isomeric excitation, its significance for natural phenomena has not been truly appreciated until now. Isomeric excitations are a widespread phenomenon of nature, as evidenced by natural radioactivity,
caused by the processes of geonucleosynthesis. Astrophysics links the formation of elements heavier than hydrogen with the processes of thermonuclear fusion in the bowels of stars. But in the synthesis processes, elements up to iron are formed. The problem of the formation of elements heavier than iron has not been completely solved in cosmology until now. There are ideas related to neutron stars that emit a huge amount of neutrons into outer space during an explosion. And already neutron reactions lead to the formation of all
heavy elements. But this idea is very controversial. First, the explosions of neutron stars are a phenomenon rarely observed. Secondly, neutrons in the free state decay rapidly.
The idea of nucleosynthesis in the bowels of planets, put forward by the authors [1, 10], is a new word in theoretical cosmology and geophysics. I first heard this idea from the report of G.K. Savinkov at the RKHTYA and SHM-26, 2.10.2020. The idea itself is innovative, but the subsequent justification of the idea is based by the authors [1, 10] on untested and questionable hypotheses. According to our ideas, the physics of this phenomenon is the same as the Rossi effect on It has been convincingly proven experimentally to date.
The process of nucleosynthesis of heavy elements in the bowels of planets can be explained within the framework of neutron physics and is associated with the electronic capture of surfaces saturated with light hydrogen under physical conditions.

The idea of geonucleosynthesis is justified from theoretical concepts of cold transmutation in physical conditions of flooded surfaces and thus gives a second mechanism of nucleosynthesis in addition to the stellar one accepted today in cosmology. Atomic
hydrogen rising to the surface of the Earth through the strata of minerals is accompanied by flooding of their surfaces. This leads, under the temperature conditions of the earth’s interior, to
electronic capture in the hydrogen atom and the appearance of free neutrons. The laws of neutron physics lead to the accumulation of certain elements depending on the specific composition of minerals, as in the experiments of Rossi, Parkhomov, Kornilova, Evdokimov, Savvatimova, Klimova, etc. Ore deposits are being formed. Geonucleosynthesis of heavy elements – this is the synthesis (emergence) of new elements in the bowels of the Earth, but not as a result of the fusion of nuclei as in stars, but in the process of neutron reactions.
In addition to the bowels of the planets, the nucleosynthesis of heavy elements, proceeding by the mechanism of the physical conditions of the flooded surfaces, can also be realized in the dust and gas nebulae
of outer space. Dust and gas nebulae in space are flooded due to the high prevalence of hydrogen in the universe. [13]. Since the HTN reactions have a temperature threshold of initiation, they should be observed in dust and gas nebulae in heating zones near (by cosmic standards) stars.
This approach to substantiating the idea of geonucleosynthesis lies within the framework of established nuclear physics, fits into the already accumulated knowledge of cosmology and astrophysics and does not replace, but
complements them. The formation of heavy elements (heavier than iron) is associated precisely with isomeric excitations (geonucleosynthesis).

Conclusions
1. The radiation of isomerically excited nuclei flows through two channels:
a) the beta radiation channel and
b) the channel of the internal conversion process with gamma quantum radiation, which is capturedby one of the orbital electrons.

Thus, when isomerically excited nuclei are emitted, gamma radiation is suppressed. This is the answer to the question of Alexander Georgievich Parkhomov.
2. When a gamma quantum is captured by one of the orbital electrons in the process of internal conversion,the electron is torn from the orbit of the atom and a hole is formed in its place. The sequential jump of electrons from higher orbits to the place of the formed hole is accompanied
by soft X-ray radiation. This is the nature of soft X-ray radiation in reactors with flooded surfaces.
3. The radiation of isomerically excited nuclei occurs with a delay from milliseconds to several years in comparison with a highly excited state. This explains the beginning of heat generation in the Fleischmann and Pons experiment about 70 days after the installation was launched.
4. When isomerically excited nuclei are emitted, energy (heat) is released in the form of kinetic energy of beta decay electrons or kinetic energy of electrons that have received energy during internal conversion. In this case , the beta decay channel is accompanied by the occurrence of
new isotopes and elements, and internal conversion leads to the emergence of a new isotope and is accompanied by a soft X-ray. Thus beta decay and soft X-rays are a sign and consequence of isomeric excitation.
5. Natural radioactivity is a consequence of the occurrence of the isomeric state of nuclei in the process of geonucleosynthesis. The physics of geonucleosynthesis is the same as in nickel -charged reactors Parkhomova A.G.